Drafting Your Paper--Part 1

Drafting Your Paper--Part 1

Table of Contents:

1. Standards for Writing: Basics
• Learning from the Experts
2. Requirements for Essays
• Structure
• Voice
• Assigned Readings
• Research
• Arguing a Thesis
3. Getting Started: Organizing Ideas
• Understand the Assignment
• Brainstorm

o Graphic Organizers       

• Research

o Credible and Reliable Sources

• Outline

o Brief Ideas—limit full sentences

In our course, we will be working with a minimum standard of a basic 5-paragraph-essay, yet in 3^rd person voice, with provable content in every body paragraph, and proving logically the thesis statement contained in the introduction paragraph (as the last sentence of the introduction paragraph).  These basics will become very familiar to you as the course moves on and as you use this handout over and over.  If you have any specific questions, I welcome them in the Discussion Board forum in the Ask the Instructor thread.

Standards for Writing: Basics

As the class starts, you could be wondering, “What is she going to expect me to write?”  Well, the beginning of this document contains basics to help you get a general feel for the writing that will be acceptable in our class, and the rest of this handout will explain more elaborately the details associated with writing in a persuasive, academic-style while arguing a point.

Learning from the Experts I remember my years in college where I mistakenly believed that my professors had to allow me open-creativity while completing my assignments.  After all, I was an adult, now.  I was led to believe that after high school, I would get to begin making my own choices in life: whether positive or negative.  However, this did not happen in my college classes, nor did it occur in the ‘jobs’ that I worked to help pay for my studies.  Each professor—no matter the discipline of the course—had a specific requirement that I had to follow.  Whether it was the precise set-up of my Chemistry lab reports, the required step-by-step showing of my equation solutions in Calculus, or the seemingly restrictive structure of my essays in Studies in Medieval Literature, I was certain that I knew how to organize, sort, and present my information better than they did. Looking back, I now know that they were correct.  Each professor—whether I liked or personally related to him or her—had insights that I did not.  Each professor had experience in his/her field-of-study and knew best how to most productively succeed in it.  It only took me my first year of college-level studies to realize that the structure and organization touted by each of these professors in their given fields was the most logical and useful way of proceeding.  While I did not always agree with their personal views, one thing I could not dispute was that they all knew how to be methodical in their fields. I retell this so that you can hopefully learn more quickly than I did to respect the experience of professors.  While you may not always like their approach, beliefs, or views of the world, their experience in their fields are valuable.  Once you have learned from them—throughout your years of study—you have the option of stepping out of that ‘box’ of organized, prescribed structure and venturing out on your own.  However, while within the confines of the academic society, you will want to follow the pattern of presentation pre-set by your field.  In our case, this is writing.  There are basic standards for writing in English.  While your content may be subjectively reflected upon at times, the structure of your writing is objectively scored based on whether you have followed the pre-set conventions that best work to order ideas in a predictable and informative way.  Please review the organizational structure below and know that there is a method to my (writing) madness.  There is a reason that I want you to follow a specific order in your writing.  It is not so that I can have control over you.  I want you to follow this order so that YOU can have CONTROL over your presentation of material and CONTROL over the way you lead your reader through your argument.  I believe you will find ease and comfort in this structure once you use it effectively.  Try to respect the experience of those whom you have gone to for education and guidance.

Requirements for Essays

·         Structure

·         Voice

·         Assigned Readings

·         Research

·         Arguing a Thesis

1. STRUCTURE: At a minimum you will be writing a 5-paragraph-essay.

1. PARAGRAPH MINIMUMS FOR ESSAYS

                                          i.    This does not mean that it cannot be longer, with more body paragraphs; however, the minimum you will write for the essays in our class will be constructed in a 3-part-system: Introduction, Body, and Conclusion.

·         Introduction paragraph: with the thesis statement as the LAST sentence of that introduction paragraph.  You will learn more about introduction paragraphs below. It must be at least 3 sentences in length, but more are typical.

·         Body paragraphs: at least three that follow the hamburger method detailed in this handout, and more specifically in the Hamburger Method handout posted to the classroom.  Body paragraphs will be at least 5 sentences in length. You will learn more about body paragraphs below.

·         Conclusion paragraph: will be one paragraph which will tidy up the essay, pointing to the thesis, and at least 3 sentences in length. You will learn more about conclusion paragraphs below.

2. VOICE: You will only write in 3^rd person voice—unless your instructor specifically gives you the go-ahead for a Narrative writing in 1^st and 3^rd person voice.

1. ACADEMIC WRITING (ESSAYS)

                                          i.    You will never use 2^nd person voice in the academic writings for our course.

·         Eliminate 1^st and 2^nd person voice from your essays: you will not use I, we, you, us, etc. 

·         Learn to craft your essays using 3^rd person voice: you will use: he, she, it, they, etc.

                                         ii.    The best way to check to see if you are writing in the correct voice for your academic paper is to go into your writing, do a ‘FIND’ (see the top right of your program) and type in the BAD words that you were not to use.  If they come up, you will need to rewrite the sentence to get it out of the incorrect voice.

2. DISCUSSION BOARD POSTS AND PARTICIPATION

                                          i.    Discussion Board posts—while needing to maintain the 3-parts-system of writing with at least an introduction paragraph, one body paragraph (but more are typical, even in a Discussion Post), and a conclusion paragraph—will not be required to stay in 3^rd person voice since you will be reflecting on readings, addressing your peers, and engaging in dialogue with the class, thus allowing for 1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd person voice.

3. OTHER DISCIPLINES

                                          i.    While the structure of your writing will remain the same throughout college, no matter what discipline you are writing within, the ‘voice’ may vary depending on instructor preference or discipline guidelines.

·         When writing in other disciplines at the college-level, be sure to ask your instructor if 1^st, 2^nd, or 3^rd person voice is the acceptable approach in that assigned writing. 

3. ASSIGNED READINGS AND QUALITY RESEARCH

1. For this class, you are required to use the assigned documents and research that you locate on your own through the library. 
2. Quality sources are to be used in the class, not Wikipedia or random blog sites with little credibility.  Be choosey about the sources you use.

4. ARGUING A THESIS

1. Finally, you will be arguing a point (or evaluating someone else’s argument) when you write. 
2. Whether you are writing a Classification or a Persuasive Argument writing, you need to assert a point and then prove that point in the writing. 
3. All writing needs to have a debatable thesis (point) and then adequately argue and prove that point. 

                                          i.    You can use the OWL of Purdue for help in crafting logical arguments at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/1/

Getting Started: Organizing Ideas

• Understand the Assignment
• Brainstorm
• Graphic Organizers     
• Research
• Credible and Reliable Sources
• Outline
• Brief Ideas—limit full sentences

UNDERSTANDING THE ASSIGNMENT

1. Even if you have an instructor who has decided to try out new assignments this semester, your instructor has tried to give you the necessary information to be able to complete your work properly.
1. Instructors do not want you to fail.
2. We went into education to help people gain knowledge, and holding you back from that knowledge is never our goal.
3. The assignment directions that your instructor provided for you are essential to understanding what is expected of you to be able to demonstrate writing or content knowledge.

                                          i.    Go to this YouTube link to see the UNC Writing Center’s presentation on how to make certain that you understand the assignment given to you.

BRAINSTORM

2. Brainstorming is often a step in the Writing Process that students quickly skip over.
1. Brainstorming is essential because it:

                                          i.    Digs deep into the topic

                                         ii.    Begins the process of placing ideas on paper—so they become tangible

                                        iii.    Opens the topic discussion so that you are working through your assignment as you discuss your ideas with friends, family, and classmates

2. There are various Graphic Organizers and Brainstorming Styles you can use to begin this step. 
3. Look at our classroom blog and see if there is a Brainstorming idea you would like to use, or you could create your own.
4. Watch this brief video on how to create a mind map: click here.

RESEARCH

3. Research will often help you to become more comfortable with the topic assigned. 
1. While research comes in many forms: books, news reports, magazines, Internet pages, the library, or simply discussing the topic with those close to you—and possibly experts in the field—you need to be very careful with who or what you believe.
2. Credible Sources: Unbiased and Peer Reviewed sources by an Expert on the Topic

                                          i.    Video

3. Reliable Sources: Trusted source or publication appropriate to the time-period in discussion creates reliability

                                          i.     video

4. Even if you are not required to use research materials in your assignment, a few hours of quality reviewing of your topic at the campus library can greatly expand your view of the topic, help focus your ideas, and prepare you for all sides of the issue.

                                          i.    While I find the word ‘crap’ low class and inappropriate in academic writing, this term has become common to complete source review in learning centers of American college by performing a C.R.A.P. test: SEE HERE for a C.R.A.P. test song, SEE HERE.

                                         ii.    NOTE: You do not have to review the C.R.A.P. test information above if you consider the term they are referencing inappropriate.  However, as an appeal to the cultural youth of today, the Learning Centers did a good job grabbing students with this concept.

OUTLINE

4. Outlines are required in academic writing to help you briefly organize your ideas in a way that will best follow the DRAFTING assigned to the essay with the use of the Hamburger Method.
1. In the class blog, you will be able to see a few handouts that will assist you with your outline:

                                          i.    Outline Suggestions

                                         ii.    Outline Basics

2. Keep the content in your outline as brief and organized as possible.  You will not write full sentences—or worse, yet—full paragraphs in an outline.  Save the full sentences and paragraphs for when you get to the DRAFTING stage.  Don’t worry!  It’s coming up next! 

 Go to Drafting Your Essay—Part 2 handout

for the next steps in the Writing Process, focused on DRAFTING.

Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion

Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion

There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its case.

Logos

Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words, the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population. Example:

Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other farmers as well.

In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that it could work for other farmers as well.

Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case. The generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence

.Example:

Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when genetically modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico.

In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that Mexico will be affected in the same way.

Avoid Logical Fallacies

These are some common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Also, watch out for these slips in other people's arguments.

Slippery slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur either. Example:

If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.

In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same thing.

Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example:

Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.

In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on only one class, and on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend several classes, and possibly even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.' Example:

I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick.

In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick.

Genetic Fallacy: A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example:

The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.

In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car.

Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim. Example:

Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.

Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."

Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example:

George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.

In this example the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.

Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices. Example:

We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.

In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car sharing systems for necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving.

Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or arguments. Example:

Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.

In this example the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group.

Ad populum: This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand. Example:

If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want.

In this example the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection between the two.

Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them. Example:

The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families.

In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may effect the other, it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few individuals.

Ethos

Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer. There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author:

• Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources properly.
• Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately.
• Establish common ground with your audience. Most of the time, this can be done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument.
• If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic.
• Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc.
• Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your character as a writer.

Pathos

Pathos, or emotional appeal, appeals to an audience's needs, values, and emotional sensibilities.

Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well. Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a single child who has been abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers.

Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people.

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Copyright ©1995-2016 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Organizing Your Argument

Organizing Your Argument

Contributors: Stacy Weida, Karl Stolley. Summary: These OWL resources will help you develop and refine the arguments in your writing.

How can I effectively present my argument?

Use an organizational structure that arranges the argument in a way that will make sense to the reader. The Toulmin Method of logic is a common and easy to use formula for organizing an argument.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows.

Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.

Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.

Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim, the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim.

Backing (also referred to as the foundation): Additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.

Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.

Including a well-thought-out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis your readers may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions.

Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument. This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments. Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers. It also makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the debate rather than just being biased or uninformed. You may want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Example:

Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity.

Warrant 1: Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. According to ineedtoknow.org "the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine."

Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal: While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/). When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice at bottom.

Copyright ©1995-2016 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Using Research and Evidence

Using Research and Evidence

Contributors: Stacy Weida, Karl Stolley. Summary: These OWL resources will help you develop and refine the arguments in your writing.

What type of evidence should I use?

There are two types of evidence.

First hand research is research you have conducted yourself such as interviews, experiments, surveys, or personal experience and anecdotes.

Second hand research is research you are getting from various texts that has been supplied and compiled by others such as books, periodicals, and Web sites.

Regardless of what type of sources you use, they must be credible. In other words, your sources must be reliable, accurate, and trustworthy.

How do I know if a source is credible?

You can ask the following questions to determine if a source is credible.

Who is the author? Credible sources are written by authors respected in their fields of study. Responsible, credible authors will cite their sources so that you can check the accuracy of and support for what they've written. (This is also a good way to find more sources for your own research.)

How recent is the source? The choice to seek recent sources depends on your topic. While sources on the American Civil War may be decades old and still contain accurate information, sources on information technologies, or other areas that are experiencing rapid changes, need to be much more current.

What is the author's purpose? When deciding which sources to use, you should take the purpose or point of view of the author into consideration. Is the author presenting a neutral, objective view of a topic? Or is the author advocating one specific view of a topic? Who is funding the research or writing of this source? A source written from a particular point of view may be credible; however, you need to be careful that your sources don't limit your coverage of a topic to one side of a debate.

What type of sources does your audience value? If you are writing for a professional or academic audience, they may value peer-reviewed journals as the most credible sources of information. If you are writing for a group of residents in your hometown, they might be more comfortable with mainstream sources, such as Time or Newsweek. A younger audience may be more accepting of information found on the Internet than an older audience might be.

Be especially careful when evaluating Internet sources! Never use Web sites where an author cannot be determined, unless the site is associated with a reputable institution such as a respected university, a credible media outlet, government program or department, or well-known non-governmental organizations. Beware of using sites like Wikipedia, which are collaboratively developed by users. Because anyone can add or change content, the validity of information on such sites may not meet the standards for academic research.

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/). When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice at bottom.

Copyright ©1995-2016 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.